ATM and ATR, two central players of the DNA damage response, are involved in the induction of systemic acquired resistance by extracellular DNA, but not the plant wound response.

Background: The plant immune response to DNA is highly self/nonself-specific. Self-DNA triggered stronger responses by early immune signals such as H2O2 formation than nonself-DNA from closely related plant species. Plants lack known DNA receptors. Therefore, we aimed to investigate whether a differential sensing of self-versus nonself DNA fragments as damage- versus pathogen-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs/PAMPs) or an activation of the DNA-damage response (DDR) represents the more promising framework to understand this phenomenon. Results: We treated Arabidopsis thaliana Col-0 plants with sonicated self-DNA from other individuals of the same ecotype, nonself-DNA from another A. thaliana ecotype, or nonself-DNA from broccoli. We observed a highly self/nonself-DNA-specific induction of H2O2 formation and of jasmonic acid (JA, the hormone controlling the wound response to chewing herbivores) and salicylic acid (SA, the hormone controlling systemic acquired resistance, SAR, to biotrophic pathogens). Mutant lines lacking Ataxia Telangiectasia Mutated (ATM) or ATM AND RAD3-RELATED (ATR) - the two DDR master kinases - retained the differential induction of JA in response to DNA treatments but completely failed to induce H2O2 or SA. Moreover, we observed H2O2 formation in response to in situ-damaged self-DNA from plants that had been treated with bleomycin or SA or infected with virulent bacteria Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000 or pv. glycinea carrying effector avrRpt2, but not to DNA from H2O2-treated plants or challenged with non-virulent P. syringae pv. glycinea lacking avrRpt2. Conclusion: We conclude that both ATM and ATR are required for the complete activation of the plant immune response to extracellular DNA whereas an as-yet unknown mechanism allows for the self/nonself-differential activation of the JA-dependent wound response.

The association of prenatal amniotic sex hormones and digit ratio (2D:4D) in children aged 5 to 70 months: A longitudinal study.

The sex difference of the 2D:4D digit ratio (female > male)-a proposed marker for prenatal testosterone exposure-is well established. Studies suggest it already exists in utero and is of moderate effect size in adulthood. However, evidence for the claim that 2D:4D reflects prenatal androgen action is limited, and the sex difference may exhibit lability during childhood. In the present study, 244 mothers were recruited in the course of an amniocentesis examination (performed between gestational weeks 14 and 18). Prenatal testosterone (T) and estradiol (E) levels were determined from amniotic fluid for boys and girls. The majority (97.4%, n = 114) of available female T levels (n = 117) were found below the level of quantification. Therefore, only male amniotic fluid data (n = 117) could be included for the analysis of associations between amniotic sex hormones (T levels and T to E ratio (T/E)) and 2D:4D. The families were then invited to each of the five consecutive follow-ups (ages: 5, 9, 20, 40, and 70 months) where children's 2D:4D was measured for both hands. The alternative marker D[r-l] reflects the directional asymmetry of 2D:4D (right subtracted by left 2D:4D) and was subsequently calculated as an additional measure for prenatal T exposure. No significant correlations between amniotic T or the T/E ratio (measured between week 14 and 18 of gestation) with 2D:4D respectively D[r-l] were observed for any time point. There was a significant sex difference (females > males) and a significant age effect with moderate correlations of 2D:4D between time points. 2D:4D increased between 20 and 40 months and between 40 and 70 months of age. The findings raise questions regarding the applicability of 2D:4D as a marker for prenatal androgen action and are discussed in terms of the reliability of obtained digit ratio data as well as in terms of the developmental timing of amniocentesis.

Self-DNA driven inflammation in COVID-19 and after mRNA-based vaccination: lessons for non-COVID-19 pathologies.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic triggered an unprecedented concentration of economic and research efforts to generate knowledge at unequalled speed on deregulated interferon type I signalling and nuclear factor kappa light chain enhancer in B-cells (NF-κB)-driven interleukin (IL)-1ß, IL-6, IL-18 secretion causing cytokine storms. The translation of the knowledge on how the resulting systemic inflammation can lead to life-threatening complications into novel treatments and vaccine technologies is underway. Nevertheless, previously existing knowledge on the role of cytoplasmatic or circulating self-DNA as a pro-inflammatory damage-associated molecular pattern (DAMP) was largely ignored. Pathologies reported 'de novo' for patients infected with Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (SARS-CoV)-2 to be outcomes of self-DNA-driven inflammation in fact had been linked earlier to self-DNA in different contexts, e.g., the infection with Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)-1, sterile inflammation, and autoimmune diseases. I highlight particularly how synergies with other DAMPs can render immunogenic properties to normally non-immunogenic extracellular self-DNA, and I discuss the shared features of the gp41 unit of the HIV-1 envelope protein and the SARS-CoV 2 Spike protein that enable HIV-1 and SARS-CoV-2 to interact with cell or nuclear membranes, trigger syncytia formation, inflict damage to their host's DNA, and trigger inflammation - likely for their own benefit. These similarities motivate speculations that similar mechanisms to those driven by gp41 can explain how inflammatory self-DNA contributes to some of most frequent adverse events after vaccination with the BNT162b2 mRNA (Pfizer/BioNTech) or the mRNA-1273 (Moderna) vaccine, i.e., myocarditis, herpes zoster, rheumatoid arthritis, autoimmune nephritis or hepatitis, new-onset systemic lupus erythematosus, and flare-ups of psoriasis or lupus. The hope is to motivate a wider application of the lessons learned from the experiences with COVID-19 and the new mRNA vaccines to combat future non-COVID-19 diseases.

Holistic face processing in 4- and 7-month-old infants.

Previous studies found an onset of holistic face processing in the age range between 0-4 and 7 months of age. To validate these studies, the present study investigated infants 4 and 7 months of age with a different experimental approach. In a habituation-dishabituation experiment, the infants were tested with stereoscopic stimuli in which stripes floated above a face, thereby occluding some parts of the face (amodal completion condition), and stereoscopic stimuli in which the same face parts floated above stripes (modal completion condition). Research with adults indicates that faces are processed holistically, that is as global wholes, in the amodal, but as independent parts in the modal completion condition, resulting in superior face recognition when the occluding bars are in front of than when they are behind the visible face parts. The present study found that infants regardless of whether they are 4 or 7 months old reliably recognized and differentiated the faces in the amodal but not in the modal completion condition. Moreover, the difference between the experimental conditions was statistically significant. These findings show that approximately at the age of 4-7 months of life, infants begin to holistically unify disjoint face parts into a coherent whole.

Black-Box Mathematical Model for Net Photosynthesis Estimation and Its Digital IoT Implementation Based on Non-Invasive Techniques: Capsicum annuum L. Study Case.

Photosynthesis is a vital process for the planet. Its estimation involves the measurement of different variables and its processing through a mathematical model. This article presents a black-box mathematical model to estimate the net photosynthesis and its digital implementation. The model uses variables such as: leaf temperature, relative leaf humidity, and incident radiation. The model was elaborated with obtained data from Capsicum annuum L. plants and calibrated using genetic algorithms. The model was validated with Capsicum annuum L. and Capsicum chinense Jacq. plants, achieving average errors of 3% in Capsicum annuum L. and 18.4% in Capsicum chinense Jacq. The error in Capsicum chinense Jacq. was due to the different experimental conditions. According to evaluation, all correlation coefficients (Rho) are greater than 0.98, resulting from the comparison with the LI-COR Li-6800 equipment. The digital implementation consists of an FPGA for data acquisition and processing, as well as a Raspberry Pi for IoT and in situ interfaces; thus, generating a useful net photosynthesis device with non-invasive sensors. This proposal presents an innovative, portable, and low-scale way to estimate the photosynthetic process in vivo, in situ, and in vitro, using non-invasive techniques.

All Set before Flowering: A 16S Gene Amplicon-Based Analysis of the Root Microbiome Recruited by Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) in Its Centre of Domestication.

Plant roots recruit most prokaryotic members of their root microbiota from the locally available inoculum, but knowledge on the contribution of native microorganisms to the root microbiota of crops in native versus non-native areas remains scarce. We grew common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) at a field site in its centre of domestication to characterise rhizosphere and endosphere bacterial communities at the vegetative, flowering, and pod filling stage. 16S r RNA gene amplicon sequencing of ten samples yielded 9,401,757 reads, of which 8,344,070 were assigned to 17,352 operational taxonomic units (OTUs). Rhizosphere communities were four times more diverse than in the endosphere and dominated by Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Crenarchaeota, and Proteobacteria (endosphere: 99% Proteobacteria). We also detected high abundances of Gemmatimonadetes (6%), Chloroflexi (4%), and the archaeal phylum Thaumarchaeota (Candidatus Nitrososphaera: 11.5%): taxa less frequently reported from common bean rhizosphere. Among 154 OTUs with different abundances between vegetative and flowering stage, we detected increased read numbers of Chryseobacterium in the endosphere and a 40-fold increase in the abundances of OTUs classified as Rhizobium and Aeromonas (equivalent to 1.5% and over 6% of all reads in the rhizosphere). Our results indicate that bean recruits specific taxa into its microbiome when growing 'at home'.

Context-Dependent Effects of Trichoderma Seed Inoculation on Anthracnose Disease and Seed Yield of Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris): Ambient Conditions Override Cultivar-Specific Differences.

Root colonizing Trichoderma fungi can stimulate plant immunity, but net effects are strain × cultivar-specific and changing ambient conditions further contribute to variable outcomes. Here, we used four Trichoderma spp. to inoculate seeds of four common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) cultivars and explored in three different experimental setups the effects on fungal anthracnose after leaf inoculation with Colletotrichum lindemuthianum. Plants growing in pots with field soil under greenhouse conditions exhibited the highest and those in the open field the lowest overall levels of disease. Among 48 Trichoderma strain × bean cultivar × setup combinations, Trichoderma-inoculation enhanced disease in six and decreased disease in ten cases, but with the exception of T. asperellum B6-inoculated Negro San Luis beans, the strain × cultivar-specific effects on anthracnose severity differed among the setups, and anthracnose severity did not predict seed yield in the open field. In the case of Flor de Mayo beans, Trichoderma even reduced yield in anthracnose-free field plots, although this effect was counterbalanced in anthracnose-infected plots. We consider our work as a case study that calls for stronger emphasis on field experiments in the early phases of screenings of Trichoderma inoculants as plant biostimulants.

Arabidopsis thaliana Response to Extracellular DNA: Self Versus Nonself Exposure.

The inhibitory effect of extracellular DNA (exDNA) on the growth of conspecific individuals was demonstrated in different kingdoms. In plants, the inhibition has been observed on root growth and seed germination, demonstrating its role in plant-soil negative feedback. Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain the early response to exDNA and the inhibitory effect of conspecific exDNA. We here contribute with a whole-plant transcriptome profiling in the model species Arabidopsis thaliana exposed to extracellular self- (conspecific) and nonself- (heterologous) DNA. The results highlight that cells distinguish self- from nonself-DNA. Moreover, confocal microscopy analyses reveal that nonself-DNA enters root tissues and cells, while self-DNA remains outside. Specifically, exposure to self-DNA limits cell permeability, affecting chloroplast functioning and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, eventually causing cell cycle arrest, consistently with macroscopic observations of root apex necrosis, increased root hair density and leaf chlorosis. In contrast, nonself-DNA enters the cells triggering the activation of a hypersensitive response and evolving into systemic acquired resistance. Complex and different cascades of events emerge from exposure to extracellular self- or nonself-DNA and are discussed in the context of Damage- and Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns (DAMP and PAMP, respectively) responses.

Investigating the reliability and sex differences of digit lengths, ratios, and hand measures in infants.

Hands and digits tend to be sexually dimorphic and may reflect prenatal androgen exposure. In the past years, the literature introduced several hand and digit measures, but there is a lack of studies in prepubertal cohorts. The available literature reports more heterogeneous findings in prepubertal compared to postpubertal cohorts. The comparability of the available studies is further limited by the study design and different measurement techniques. The present study compared the reliability and sex differences of available hand and digit measures, namely digit lengths of 2D, 3D, 4D, 5D, digit ratios 2D:4D, 2D:5D, 3D:4D, 3D:5D, 4D:5D, relative digit lengths rel2, rel3, rel4, rel5, directional asymmetry of right and left 2D:4D (Dr-l), hand width, length, and index of 399 male and 364 female 6-month-old German infants within one study using only indirect and computer-assisted measurements. The inter-examiner reliability was excellent while the test-retest reliability of hand scans was only moderate to high. Boys exhibited longer digits as well as wider and longer hands than girls, but smaller digit ratios, with ratios comprising the fifth digit revealing the largest effect sizes. Other hand and digit ratios revealed sex differences to some extent. The findings promote the assumption of sexual dimorphic hand and digit measures. However, by comparing the results of the available literature, there remains an uncertainty regarding the underlying hypothesis. Specifically in prepubertal cohorts, i.e. before the influence of fluctuating hormones, significant effects should be expected. It seems like other factors than the influence of prenatal androgens contribute to the sexual dimorphism in hand and digit lengths.

Damage-Associated Molecular Patterns (DAMPs) in Plant Innate Immunity: Applying the Danger Model and Evolutionary Perspectives.

Danger signals trigger immune responses upon perception by a complex surveillance system. Such signals can originate from the infectious nonself or the damaged self, the latter termed damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). Here, we apply Matzinger's danger model to plant innate immunity to discuss the adaptive advantages of DAMPs and their integration into preexisting signaling pathways. Constitutive DAMPs (cDAMPs), e.g., extracellular ATP, histones, and self-DNA, fulfill primary, conserved functions and adopt a signaling role only when cellular damage causes their fragmentation or localization to aberrant compartments. By contrast, immunomodulatory peptides (also known as phytocytokines) exclusively function as signals and, upon damage, are activated as inducible DAMPs (iDAMPs). Dynamic coevolutionary processes between the signals and their emerging receptors and shared co-receptors have likely linked danger recognition to preexisting, conserved downstream pathways.

Parent-Reports of Sex-Typed Play Preference in Preschool Children: Relationships to 2D:4D Digit Ratio and Older Siblings' Sex.

Sex-typed play behavior shows large sex differences and seems to be affected by prenatal sex hormones. For example, a smaller, more male-typical ratio between the second and fourth digit length (2D:4D), a proposed marker for prenatal testosterone exposure, has been shown to be related to sex-typed play preference in childhood. Nevertheless, it is still being debated whether 2D:4D displays a stable sex difference throughout childhood, as there are few longitudinal studies. In the present study, children's 2D:4D was measured on both hands on four occasions from early infancy to early childhood (T1: 5 months, T2: 9 months, T3: 20 months, and T4: 40 months) providing the rare possibility to test the temporal stability of the sex difference. Parents completed the Preschool Activities Inventory at T4 and reported on the number of older brothers and sisters as a measure for socialization influences. Parents described boys as playing more masculine and less feminine than girls. Boys had smaller 2D:4D than girls at all measurements (T1-T4) and on both hands (right/left). Nevertheless, 2D:4D increased significantly from T3 to T4 in both sexes. Girls, but not boys, who were described as playing more masculine and less feminine had more masculine 2D:4D ratios at T1-T4 on both hands (except for right 2D:4D at T2 and T3) and had more older brothers and fewer older sisters. These data underline the stability of the sex difference in 2D:4D and show the importance of both biological and social influences on sex-typed play behavior.

Sequestration of Exogenous Volatiles by Plant Cuticular Waxes as a Mechanism of Passive Associational Resistance: A Proof of Concept.

Numerous plant-derived volatile organic compounds (VOCs) induce the expression of resistance-related genes and thereby cause an "associational resistance" in neighbouring plants. However, VOCs can also be sequestered by plant cuticular waxes. In case that they maintain their biological activity, such sequestered VOCs could generate a "passive" associational resistance that is independent of any gene expression in the receiver. As a proof of concept, we used major components of the cuticular wax layers of the tree, Parkinsonia praecox, and conidia of Colletotrichum lindemuthianum, a fungal pathogen that has not been reported to infect P. praecox. Wax layers were re-constituted on glass slides and exposed to each of 20 pure VOCs for 1 d and then to ambient air for 1 d or 15 d. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analyses showed that all 20 VOCs were sequestered by the re-constituted wax layers. Exposure to 18 of the VOCs significantly inhibited the germination of C. lindemuthianum conidia on these wax layers after 1 day of exposure to ambient air. Four of the VOCs: 4Z-heptenol, farnesene, limonene, and 2E-decenal, inhibited germination rates to less than 25% of the controls. After 15 d, all VOCs were still detectable, although at strongly reduced concentrations, and no significant inhibition of conidial germination could be detected anymore. Exogenous VOCs can be sequestered by the components of plant cuticular waxes and maintain their biological activity, at least over a certain time span: an effect that could generate a transient "passive associational resistance" to pathogens.

Health-related quality of life after heart surgery - Identification of high-risk patients: A cohort study.

BACKGROUND: This cohort study evaluated factors, which have been shown to be relevant for Health-Related Quality of Live (HRQL) after cardiac surgery and investigated the combinatory impact on HRQL. Additionally, the aim was to introduce a first attempt to developing a risk estimation model which could identify patients at risk for impaired HRQL. METHODS: For this single-centre cohort study, 6099 cardiac surgical patients (60% isolated coronary bypass surgery) filled in the Nottingham Health Profile (NHP) for the evaluation of HRQL six months after surgery and provided information regarding their medical and socio-demographic status. For the NHP scores the deviation to the matched normative data of a healthy sample was calculated. A robust linear regression examined factors that influence HRQL. As a next step, based on the regression model, a risk estimation model was developed which is a first attempt to classify patients into risk categories. RESULTS: Male gender, age below 60 or between 60 and 74 years, living alone, no occupation, bypass surgery, NYHA status II, III or IV and chest pain were identified as risk factors to determine impaired HRQL. The model explains 29.13% of the variance. Based on the risk estimation model 27.4% were classified as medium or high risk. CONCLUSIONS: For the first time a multilevel method was applied to evaluate HRQL after heart surgery showing that socio-demographic variables are important co-factors to dyspnea and chest pain. We take a first attempt in developing a new approach that should encourage further research in this field to frame a screening tool that may help identifying patients at risk in the future.

Self-DNA Sensing Fuels HIV-1-Associated Inflammation.

Inflammation, over-reacting innate immunity, and CD4+ T cell depletion are hallmarks of HIV-1 infection. Self-DNA is usually not considered in the context of HIV-1-associated inflammation, although self-DNA contributes to inflammation in diverse pathologies, including autoimmune diseases, cancer, multiorgan failure after trauma, and even virus infections. Cells undergoing HIV-1-associated pyroptotic bystander cell death release self-DNA and other damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), including chaperones and histones. In complexes with such DAMPs or extracellular vesicles, self-DNA gains immunogenic potential and becomes accessible to intracellular DNA sensors. Therefore, we hypothesize that self-DNA can contribute to HIV-1-associated inflammation. Self-DNA might not only drive HIV-1-associated 'inflamm-ageing' but also provide new opportunities for 'shock and kill' strategies aimed at eliminating latent HIV-1.

Sex specific relationships between infants' mental rotation ability and amiotic sex hormones.

Sex differences in mental rotation, robust in adults, have recently been reported for infants' looking times although the pattern of results is not completely conclusive. In this context, organizational effects of gonadal steroids affecting the neural circuitry underlying spatial cognition could be (partly) responsible for the early sex difference. In the present study testosterone and estradiol levels measured in amniotic fluid via ultra performance liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry were used to examine the role of prenatal sex hormones on infants' looking times during mental rotation. N = 208 six-month-old infants participated in an expectation of violation task with 3D cube figures. Mental rotation was defined as the difference in looking times for familiar versus mirrored cube figures whereas vigilance was defined as the sum of both looking times. Sex differences were absent for mental rotation as well as for vigilance. Most importantly, however, for boys mental rotation but not vigilance was correlated with prenatal testosterone but not with estradiol. For girls mental rotation but not vigilance was correlated with prenatal estradiol but not with testosterone although it has to be noted that the testosterone values for girls suffered from a floor effect. Only 5% of the within-sex variance was due to prenatal sex hormones indicating small effects. These findings extend our knowledge concerning organizational effects of prenatal sex hormones on the brain circuitry underlying spatial cognition.

Comparing birth experience and birth outcome of vaginal births between induced and spontaneous onset of labour: a prospective study.

PURPOSE: In developed countries, around 25% of all births involve labour induction. Studies have indicated that labour induction negatively influences the birth experience as well as the birth process. However, the impact of labour induction when only considering vaginal deliveries has not been studied yet, which was the purpose of the present study. METHODS: 186 women who gave birth vaginally took part in this prospective study. 95 women gave birth after spontaneous onset of labour (SL-group) and 91 women received a labour induction (LI-group). Eight to 72 h after birth, the women filled in the revised version of the standardised Childbirth Experience Questionnaire, which examines the birth experience in four dimensions (Own Capacity, Perceived Safety, Participation and Professional Support). Medical details regarding birth and fetal outcomes were taken from the medical records. RESULTS: Birth outcomes (the number of epidural anaesthesia, the duration of birth, birth risks and childbirth injuries) as well as fetal outcomes (APGAR after 1 and 5 min and arterial cord pH) did not differ between the groups. Regarding the subjective birth experience, the LI-group indicated significantly lower values for Perceived Safety and Participation compared to the SL-group, while there were no differences for the dimensions Own Capacity and Professional Support. DISCUSSION: Successful labour induction resulting in a vaginal birth did not negatively influence birth and fetal outcomes and only partly affected the women's birth experience. The negative impact of labour induction on the dimensions Perceived Safety and Participation should sensitize midwives in order to provide optimal support.

Nucleic Acid Sensing in Mammals and Plants: Facts and Caveats.

The accumulation of nucleic acids in aberrant compartments is a signal of danger: fragments of cytosolic or extracellular self-DNA indicate cellular dysfunctions or disruption, whereas cytosolic fragments of nonself-DNA or RNA indicate infections. Therefore, nucleic acids trigger immunity in mammals and plants. In mammals, endosomal Toll-like receptors (TLRs) sense single-stranded (ss) or double-stranded (ds) RNA or CpG-rich DNA, whereas various cytosolic receptors sense dsDNA. Although a self/nonself discrimination could favor targeted immune responses, no sequence-specific sensing of nucleic acids has been reported for mammals. Specific immune responses to extracellular self-DNA versus DNA from related species were recently reported for plants, but the underlying mechanism remains unknown. The subcellular localization of mammalian receptors can favor self/nonself discrimination based on the localization of DNA fragments. However, autoantibodies and diverse damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) shuttle DNA through membranes, and most of the mammalian receptors share downstream signaling elements such as stimulator of interferon genes (STING) and the master transcription regulators, nuclear factor (NF)-κB, and interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3). The resulting type I interferon (IFN) response stimulates innate immunity against multiple threats-from infection to physical injury or endogenous DNA damage-all of which lead to the accumulation of eDNA or cytoplasmatic dsDNA. Therefore, no or only low selective pressures might have favored a strict self/nonself discrimination in nucleic acid sensing. We conclude that the discrimination between self- and nonself-DNA is likely to be less strict-and less important-than assumed originally.

Prenatal testosterone exposure is associated with delay of gratification and attention problems/overactive behavior in 3-year-old boys.

Sex differences in self-control become apparent during preschool years. Girls are better able to delay their gratification and show less attention problems and overactive behavior than boys. In this context, organizational effects of gonadal steroids affecting the neural circuitry underlying self-control could be responsible for these early sex differences. In the present study testosterone levels measured in amniotic fluid (via ultra performance liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry) were used to examine the role of organizational sex hormones on self-control. One hundred and twenty-two 40-month-old children participated in a delay of gratification task (DoG task) and their parents reported on their attention problems and overactive behavior. Girls waited significantly longer for their preferred reward than boys, and significantly more girls than boys waited the maximum period of time, providing evidence for sex differences in delay of gratification. Boys that were rated as suffering from more attention problems and overactive behavior waited significantly shorter in the DoG task. Amniotic testosterone measures were reliable in boys only. Most importantly, boys who waited shorter in the DoG task and boys who were reported to suffer from more attention problems and overactive behavior had higher prenatal testosterone levels. These findings extend our knowledge concerning organizational effects of testosterone on the brain circuitry underlying self-control in boys, and are of relevance for understanding how sex differences in behavioral disorders are connected with a lack of self-control.

Quantification of fetal steroids in nails of neonates to quantify prenatal stress and growth restriction.

This study assesses the impact of prenatal stress and intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) on the dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and dehydroepiandrosteronesulfate (DHEAS) concentrations in nails of newborns. Nail samples were gained from 56 newborn infants. The concentration of DHEA and DHEAS was measured by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. Prenatal stress was assessed by the Prenatal Distress Questionnaire and by the Life Experience Survey. Prenatal stress was not associated with infant nail DHEA or DHEAS concentrations. The concentration of DHEA and DHEAS was decreased in infants with IUGR (DHEA: p = 0.037, DHEAS p < 0.01). Nail-DHEAS increased with gestational age (p < 0.01). In this study prenatal life event stress or pregnancy specific stress do not correlate with higher DHEA or DHEAS concentrations in nails of newborns. Concentration of DHEAS is rather affected by length of gestation. Our approach is an easily applicable method to assess intrauterine life with the potential to give insights in the activity of fetal hormone systems and mechanism underlying fetal programming.